THE APACHE IN THE SOUTHWEST, 1846-1886
For three hundred years the Spanish and Mexicans waged re-
entless war against the Apaches who returned all of their cruelty
and hatred in double measure. The Apache proved that he was
neither to be subdued nor conquered as had been the Indians of
Mexico, and the passing years widened the gulf that yawned be-
tween him and his would be masters. When the people of the
United States looked with longing eyes upon the southwest, it was
in utter ignorance of the tremendous problem that awaited them,
—a problem that had proved the undoing of both Spaniard and
Mexican before them. Prosperous settlements and thriving ranches
had been laid waste by the indomitable Apache until his very name
struck terror to the heart of man, woman and child. With an in-
satiable land-hunger and with a boundless faith in their own
ability to master the situation, the people of the United States in-
vaded the southwest, acquired Mexican territory and incidentally
acquired some thousands of fierce and warlike Apaches, who must
be conquered, restrained and taught a new mode of life ere the
new possession could offer adequate protection to its inhabitants.
From 1846 until 1886 the struggle went on between the Apaches
and their new foes. Various plans for bringing order out of chaos
were proposed and given trial and many lives were sacrificed before
peace and order came to stay. The story of these forty years of
conflict are full of human interest for they are the story of a strong
and gifted people making a heroic struggle for their ancestral home
and for their tribal freedom, longing with an intense longing to
be allowed to live their lives in accord with the wild and savage
customs handed down to them from their savage forbears. Ar-
rayed against them were a people of virile stock, bearing aloft the
torch of civilization and humanity but, being intensely human
their higher ideals had mixed with them baser desires of selfish-
ness, hatred and greed, and it was largely due to these latter trait
that the settlement was forty long years in coming.
Though the Apache had long been the bitter enemy of the Mexi-
can, yet the citizen of the United States did not share the hatred
so generously given his southern neighbor. Indeed the Apache
welcomed the United States as an ally during the Mexican War,
for Mexico was their common foe. But the Treaty of Guadalupe
Hidalgo wrought a great change; a change not at first recognized
by the Apache. By the terms of the treaty, the United States as-
sumed all responsibility for the protection of her newly acquired
Mexican citizens and also for the enforcement of good-behavior
by the lawless Apache, who was no more to be allowed to depredate
south of the international boundary.
General
Kearny'
s
treaties.
--While on his hasty march of con-
quest, General Kearny held meetings with representatives of the
various tribes, including the Apaches, making treaties,--largely
verbal,--with them. By these treaties the Indians were bound to
submission and future loyalty, whereas the United States pledged
itself, through its authorized representatives, to furnish them full
protection against enemies internal and external. Scarcely had
Kearny turned his back on the newly sworn friends than the
Navajos, one tribe of the Apache family, began open depradations
upon their sometime foes. Colonel Doniphan was dispatched to
the Navajo country to secure the release of all prisoners and prop-
erty stolen from the inhabitants of New Mexico and to secure
adequate guarantee of future good conduct. The new treaty signed
was but one of a series continuing through the years 1846-1867.
Only the last one was worth the paper it was written on. Most
of them were not even ratified by the Senate but that mattered
not, for before that body had time to act the Navajos had already
proven the written word valueless. Colonel Doniphan did succeed
in leaving New Mexico before the Navajos again raided the settle-
ments. Then followed the Taos Revolt which was in turn followed
by a period of guerilla warfare in which the Apaches and Navajos
took active part. United States troops were stationed in the new
territory and to them was intrusted the public safety. During the
years that followed these troops saw much active service, especially
on short scouts and punitive expeditions against both Navajos and
Apaches. During the earlier years of United States occupation the
Navajos and Jicarillas were the ones most frequently in need of chas-
tisement. Santa Fé and the Rio Grande valley were a constant temp-
tation to the Navajo who quickly escaped from his raids into the
most impenetrable fastnesses of northwestern New Mexico.
Scarcely less daring were the Jicarilla Apaches who found valuable
prey in the travellers over the Santa Fé Trail.
In the early 50's when gold began to lure men to Calilornia,
wagon trains began to wind their way through the mountains of
New Mexico and Arizona to the golden land beyond. The almost
incredible estimate of sixty thousand has been made for these
weary travellers over the Santa Fé Trail and the southern trails
leading from Texas. Privation and suffering attended their path,
but worse than all else was the wily Apache who lurked behind
rock and bush, showing no trace of his presence until unhappily
the weary traveller was off guard or too weakened to successfully
defend himself. Then the men of the party were slain and the
women and children killed or carried into lives of slavery worse
than death. All stock were much esteemed booty, for horses and
mules were legal tender among the Apaches. Not only were they
valuable as riding animals but they provided food,--mule meat
being an exceedingly choice dainty,--and with them a man might
buy his wives.
In March 1849, after Congress had created a new department,
that of the Interior, and after it had placed the department of
Indian affairs under it, the Agency at Council Bluffs was trans-
ferred to Santa Fé that there might be a base from which the gov-
ernment might hope to deal with the Indian problem in the new
territory,—a problem which had by that time begun to assume
rather large proportions. But the law-makers of the Union were
too ignorant of the needs of the situation and even the local civil
and military officials were too newly on the ground to be able to
speak authoritatively. So the first decade of United States occu-
pancy dragged on, punctuated here and there by treaties with the
hostiles by scouts and the Military and by periodic punitive
expeditions which failed before they started, in the big thing they
sought to do because the number of the force was too inadequate
to inflict a lasting blow.
One thing of incalculable importance marks this decade: this
terra incognita became known. As the troops scoured the moun-
tains in quest of renegades, they grew familiar with the country
they learned the contour of the land, the trails, the water
courses and the springs. They penetrated the mountain fastnesses
where the Apache had long hidden himself secure from pursuit.
And with this acquaintance with the country they acquired further
acquaintance with their wily antagonist, whose habits and customs
they must know before they could hope to control or conquer him.
But the gain did not stop there. Various exploring expeditions were
made and the boundary and railroad surveys plotted the map of
the new territories. Thus passed the decade of the 50's. At its
end the Apache problem seemed little nearer its solution for the
enemy was even more avowedly an enemy than at the time of the
conquest. But the United States had made definite progress.
One other beginning made by the United States during these
years must be mentioned. In spite of the unsettled condition of
the new territories, the influx of population had been considerable.
The California immigrants, many of them, failed to reach the
promised land and took up their abode where their exhausted re-
sources or worn horses stranded them. Copper, gold and silver
mines were opened in Arizona and drew the customary ambitious
money seekers. The Vigilance Committee of San Francisco stren-
uously encouraged settlement of southern Arizona by expelling
desperadoes from California.
This influx of population was for years apparently a source of
weakness to the United States rather than strength, for the new-
comers offered new temptations to the Apaches for depredations
and they were ever in difficulty with the Apaches and were con-
stantly complaining of the inadequacy of the military protection
and of the efforts that were being made to control the Apaches.
But in time, their presence helped to provide that evidence of
power that led the Apache to see that his cause was hopeless.
Growing
Apache
hostility.
--And while the white was thus gain-
ing knowledge and getting ready for really grappling with the
problem before him, what of the Apache? As the white began
to gather in larger numbers in Apacheria and as the previously
impenetrable fastnesses were penetrated and as the troops were
inflicting punishment upon the Apache tribes, their attitude toward
the United States changed. No longer considered allies, the people
of the United States must be recognized as more dangerous foes
than any who had come before. They were more numerous than
the Spaniards had been and braver than the Mexicans were prov-
ing to be. The Apaches began to see that if they would hold their
home in security they must be more wily than ever. But more
potent than these things in changing the Apache attitude toward
the citizens of the United States was the treatment that some of
them received at the hands of the troops. Their confidence in
the fair play and honesty of the United States received its first
mortal wound.
In the spring of 1861 some Apaches stole a cow and a child from
the Mexican mistress of an American. Seventy-five men were
sent from Fort Buchanan to demand the return of the stolen prop-
erty. At Apache Pass, under protection of a white flag flying over
the tent of the commander, Cochise the head chief and five other
chiefs entered for a talk. Upon their stout denial of all knowl-
edge of the matter, the order was given to seize the chiefs. Cochise
slit the tent with his knife and effected his own escape but the
captive chiefs were hung in retaliation for the fighting that was
begun immediately by the Chiricahuas Apaches. Years of blood-
shed were the fruit of that act of American treachery.
The
Civil
War.—Almost immediately too, the Civil War broke
out and the troops were removed from Arizona. This increased
the Apache belief in the efficacy of their punishment of the United
States troops and led to a general devastation of the whole region.
Thus the close of the Civil War found all of the Apache tribes ex-
cept the Jicarillas openly hostile. The Indians of the Gila country
were united in hostility against the whites, planning their ex-
termination.
Extermination
attempted.
--Because the situation was serious and
because of lack of federal sanction for any plan suggested for the
meeting of the situation, those in authority fell back upon the more
stringent form of police duty which was in effect that of extermina-
tion. With this extreme measure General Carleton, then com-
manding New Mexico, seemed in full accord.
The
Expedition
against
the
Mescaleros.
--The Mescaleros were
the first to feel the force of the blow. An expedition was started
against them under orders that the men were to be slain whenever
and wherever found: the women and children could be taken pris-
oners but were not to be killed. The recalcitrant Indians finally
surrendered and were placed at Bosque Redondo until such a time
as war against the hostiles should be finished when they were
promised a reservation in their own country. Meantime they were
promised protection at the Bosque.
The
Mimbreños
subdued.
--The Mimbreño Apaches were the next
to suffer. An expedition against them in January, 1863, resulted in
the capture of Mangus Colorado and twenty of his warriors, many
of his band having been slain. Mangus Colorado was their aged
chief who for nearly five decades had been the dominant figure
in his own tribe, having also broad influence over other Apache
tribes. A man of marked ability he was, of wise councils and
with the mind of a statesman. Of him it was said that he could
collect under his direction and provide with the necessary food a
larger group of warriors than could any other Apache chief. His
capture and subsequent tragic death failed to increase the love
of his tribe for the United States but did effectually stop the war-
fare for a time.
The
Navajos
conquered.
--A third great expedition was planned
and carried into effect--this time against the treacherous Navajos
who had so long been on the war-path. Early results of the expe-
dition were relatively so unimportant that it was finally decided to
invade Cañon de Chelly,--their greatest stronghold. The invasion
was apparently without results but as the Navajos saw that there
was no place impregnable to the pursuing white, they gradually
came in and surrendered themselves. They were placed on the
Bosque Redondo where the Mescaleros were already gathered. And
there they stayed until they were taken back to their own country
four years later. The Navajo rebellion was truly at an end,--tem-
porarily and permanently.
The
joint
expedition
of
extermination.
--But these expeditions
had not done away with the Apache problem though it had done
much to pacify certain of the hostiles. So in the spring of 1864
General Carleton conceived the idea of a joint expedition to last
from sixty to ninety days in which they would "either exterminate
the Indians or so diminish their numbers" that they would cease
their "murdering and robbing propensities and live at peace." Don
Ignacio Pesquira, Governor of Sonora; Don Luis Perrazas, Gov-
ernor of Chihuahua, and the miners in the Apache infested region,
all agreed to co-operate and place forces in the field. As a result
of this combined effort some three hundred sixty-three Indians were
killed and one hundred forty wounded. Allowing for loss of ani-
mals to the Indians, their foes made a net gain of ten thousand
six hundred and forty-six head of stock. Two thousand Navajos
were sent to the Bosque and thirty of the western Apaches also
found their way there. Hostiles were still in the mountains and
more bitter than ever against their would-be conquerors. And the
war of extermination went on, the regular troops being ever stirred
to greater activity.
Military
re-organization.-When
the Military was re-organized
at the end of the Civil War and General Halleck was placed in
charge of the Military Division of the Pacific under which Arizona
lay he said, "It is useless to negotiate with these Apache Indians.
They will observe no treaties, agreements, or truces. With them
there is no alternative but active and vigorous war, till they are
completely destroyed, or forced to surrender as prisoners of war.
His successor General Ord was an even more enthusiastic ex-
terminator. His own words reveal only too clearly his attitude
and the course of events in the latter 60's. "I encouraged the
troops to capture and root out the Apaches by every means, and to
hunt them as they would wild animals. This they have done with
unrelenting vigor. Since my last report (1868) over two hundred
have been killed, generally by parties who have trailed them for
days and weeks into the mountain recesses, over snows, among
gorges and precipices, lying in wait for them by day, and follow-
ing them by night. Many villages have been burned, large quan-
tities of arms and supplies of ammunition, clothing and provisions
have been destroyed, a large number of horses and mules have been
captured, and two men, twenty-eight women, and thirty-four chil-
dren have been taken prisoners." That mercy found little part in
the treatment the Apache received during these dark days is evi-
dent. That gross injustice and bitter cruelty did find place is all
too evident. Repeated instances of this might be cited but one
will suffice, the one chosen being a story which in its repetition in
the east, did much to bring about a change in government policy
regarding the Apache.
The
Camp
Grant
Massacre.
--A band of about one hundred fifty
Arivaipa Apaches had presented themselves at Camp Grant ex-
pressing a desire for peace. Lieutenant Whitman, then in charge
of Camp Grant, agreed to allow them to locate there temporarily,
while he should communicate with the proper authorities and learn
what disposition should be made of them. Meantime he promised
to feed and protect them. Word was brought to Whitman that
a large party of "Americans, Mexicans and Papago Indians" had
left Tucson with the "avowed determination of killing these
Arivaipas." He at once sent orders to the Indians to come in to
the post where they could be adequately protected. But his mes-
sengers were too late, for the attacking party had surprised the
camp and already the place was strewn with the mutilated bodies
of women and children and their lodges were in flames. The men
were mostly away at the time of the attack; of the one hundred
twenty-five killed or missing, only eight were men. Though one
hundred of the perpetrators of this crime were indicted and brought
before the United States District Court for trial, a deliberation of
twenty minutes was all the jury needed before bringing the verdict,
"Not guilty." The press and the people of Arizona justified or
apologized for the crime.
As the story of this atrocity was repeated in the east, and with
it others no more to the credit of the white men, sympathy for the
poor abused Apache crowded largely from the mind the thought
of the crimes that had dyed the hands of the Apache red. In
1867 a Commission had been sent to New Mexico to settle the
Navajo question and it had successfully transferred the Indians
back to their old homes, establishing them there on a reserve where
they began a new life of agriculture and sheep-raising, gradually
forgetting the former life of pillage and atrocity. Why might not
the same thing be done for the rest of the Apache family rather
than to continue this cruelty and injustice that were placing such
a stain on American honor?
The
mission
of
Mr.
Colyer.
--With plenary powers, Mr. Vincent
Colyer went in 1871 to New Mexico and Arizona hoping great
things. But he found no echo of that hope in the expression of the
press and the people--especially in Arizona. All were bitterly and
actively hostile to him and to his mission of peace. The Indians
hemselves had had their faith in the friendliness and fidelity of
the white man so badly shaken that it was difficult to hold satis-
factory conferences with them.
Four reservation were selected for the Apaches: at Tularosa,
New Mexico, for the Mimbreños and Coyotéros; at Camp Apache
in the White Mountains of Arizona for the Coyotéros and Chileons
of Arizona; at Camp Grant, Arizona, for the Arivaipas and Pinals;
and at Camp Verde, Arizona, for the Mojave Apaches of Yanpais.
Also three temporary asylums were established for the protection
and feeding of other Apaches until such a time as they could be
moved to permanent reservations. These three were at Camp Mc-
Dowell, Beal's Springs and Date Creek. These were primarily for
the Tonto Apaches, Hualpais and the western band of Apache
Mojaves.
The military and local officials tried to carry into effect the re-
forms instituted by Mr. Colyer but the results were far from sat-
isfactory to themselves and to others. Cochise and his band were
actively hostile in the south, the children of the Apaches who were
taken into captivity at the time of the Camp Grant massacre were
still unrestored to their people, the Mimbreños and Coyotéros who
had been transferred to Tularosa were far from happy there and
longed to return to their old homes. So, in February, 1872, Gen-
eral O O. Howard was sent out with powers similar to those of
Mr. Colyer that he might carry into effect as far as he was able the
views of the Department in regard to the nomadic Indians, espe-
cially considering the propriety of uniting and settling these In-
dians on a reservation further east in the territory of New Mexico
General Howard was more successful than his predecessor had been
in winning the confidence of whites and Indians and his suggestion
were consequently more in line with a possible course of procedure.
At his recommendation, six Apache children who were held by
whites in Arizona were returned to their relatives: this won the
confidence of the Indians at the very beginning. The Camp Grant
reservation was discontinued because of the unhealthy character of
the place, and in its stead a new agency, called San Carlos, was
formed on White Mountain reservation. A reservation was set
apart in southeastern Arizona for the Chiricahuas after General
Howard had succeeded in meeting Cochise and making a treat
with him It is noteworthy that this treaty was faithfully kept
by this hoary warrior of unsavory reputation and by his people.
Nor was it set aside until the United States saw fit to do so that
the Chiricahuas might be moved back from the international boun-
dary. But that is a later story. One other thing stands to Gen-
eral Howard's credit. He encouraged Superintendent Pope to
make an experiment with Navajo police under the leadership of
their respected chief, Manuelita. That this experiment was wholly
satisfactory was the cause of its spreading to the other reservations
and other tribes where it finally became a part of the regular means
of control of the Indians. General Howard also abolished the In-
dian feeding posts at McDowell, Beal's Springs and Date Creek
and allowed the Tontos to take their choice between the White
Mountain reservation and the Verde reserve. The Indians at Tul-
arosa he still left there that the trial might be fairly made of that
place, for the officials were bravely trying to prove that their choice
of place for the reservation was a wise one. But try as they might,
it was a failure, for the Indians did not and would not like the
place and the larger part of them would not remain on the reserve.
So in 1874 it was ordered that the Apaches there be transferred
back to the vicinity of their former home,--to Ojo Caliente. There
they settled down to lives of contentment and quiet.
Thus by 1874 some of the more vexing of the Apache troubles
had found settlement. There were still renegade bands in the
mountains and the troops and Apache scouts saw frequent service
in consequence. But the number of Apaches living quietly on
reservations and learning the pursuits of civilized life had never
before been so large. The most sanguine saw bright visions for
the future. But already a cloud "like a man's hand" was to be
seen in the sky and soon the storm burst upon the red man and
the white.
Concentration
reserves
instituted.
--Arizona and New Mexico had
been rapidly filling with new settlers. Many of these had settled
on lands occupied or at least claimed by the Indians. The lands
were desirable and the whites wanted a chance to hold them in
lasting possession. The Indians, they thought, were not adequately
occupying them and the pressure was very strong upon the govern-
ment to remove the Indians from these lands and thus give them
to the whites to occupy and improve. Furthermore the officials
believed that the hostile tribes surely could be more easily and
economically controlled were they corralled on more or less limited
tracts of land where it would be possible to supervise them more
closely. For these reasons it was decided to begin to concentrate
the Indian tribes on certain reserves selected for them. Concentra-
tion reserves were not unthought-of before this time but the time
for attempting their inauguration had not before seemed ripe.
Ownership of the land in severalty and the extension over the In-
dians of United States law and the jurisdiction of the United States
courts were a part of the ultimate plan.
The
Verde
reservation
abandoned.—The first transfer gave the
Verde reservation to the whites and transferred the Tontos living
there to San Carlos. With true courage the Indians there had be-
gun their new life. Without adequate implements they had dug
ditches and planted crops. Their lands had been promised to them
by General Crook and they were unwilling to leave them. He him-
self refused to give military aid in transferring the Indians by
force for he felt the injustice of the action. Though reluctant,
the Indians submitted peaceably to the transfer.
The
White
Mountain
Coyotéros
removed.
--More unjust still was
the removal of the White Mountain Coyotéros from their homes in
the White Mountains to San Carlos. They had steadfastly main-
tained a peaceful attitude toward the whites, assisting in the capture
of hostiles. Comfortably located in their secluded mountains, these
Indians were regularly raising greater crops than all of the rest of
the Apaches put together. But that the cost of the agency admin-
istration might be lessened and that the trade of these Indians
might be diverted from New Mexico to Arizona "where it properly
belonged" the transfer was made and all former promises were set
aside. A majority of the White Mountain Coyotéros refused to
move but the rest were finally prevailed upon to migrate. The
state of their minds is clearly read in the sanguinary quarrel that
added to the general confusion and discomfort of the journey.
The hostility of the Pinals who were already at San Carlos and
with whom the White Mountain Coyotéros had a hereditary feud
led many of these newcomers to leave San Carlos in the fall of
1875 and seek refuge with their cousins on the Chiricahua reserva-
tion. But a quarrel there between the two tribes resulted in the
death of a Chiricahua chief and again the Coyotéros were forced
to seek refuge elsewhere.
The
Chiricahua
reservation
abolished.
--The Chiricahuas were
the next victims of the concentration policy. With the reputation
of being the most warlike of the Apache tribes, and with a history
fairly reeking with bloodshed and cruelty, the Chiricahuas had
faithfully kept the pledges of peace that they had made to General
Howard in 1872. They seemed in fact to have "buried the hatchet"
as far as the United States was concerned. Frequent raids were
made into Mexico and many were the victims to their prowess there
and many were the horses and mules that they brought back to
their reservation homes. But that was no violation of their treaty.
On one of these raids into Sonora gold-dust and silver were se-
cured. Desire for this led a man, Rogers by name, living at Sul-
phur Springs, to let them know that he had whisky in his home.
Orders from the agent were strict that no whisky was to be sold to
the Indians but that made no difference to him. Repeatedly he
sold to the Indians and when he finally refused to sell more, they
shot Rogers and his cook. The Indians then stole some horses,
ammunition and whisky and returned to their camp in the Dragoon
mountains. The agent and a troop of cavalry went to the scene
of the murder and then sought to follow the murderers. Finding
them too securely entrenched in the mountains the expedition was
abandoned for the time. Later the troops tried to find these hos-
tiles but neither they nor their companions were captured.
Shortly after this preparations were made for the removal of the
peaceful Chiricahuas to San Carlos. Because of the crime com-
mitted by a small group of Indians, acting under the influence of
liquor illegally sold to them, the Chiricahua tribe was deprived of
its rights on the reservation, that reserve was restored to the pub-
lic domain, and the pledged word of the United States was set
aside. Three hundred sixteen Chiricahuas reached San Carlos
and about one hundred forty followed Gordo to Ojo Caliente; and
some four hundred, led by Hoo, Geronimo and Nolgee, roamed the
country from the Rio Mimbres to Santa Cruz, Sonora. But they
wreaked a bitter vengeance on the country for the loss of their
ancestral home and such a period of distress and bloodshed fol-
lowed as had not been since the days when Cochise and his war-
riors avenged the treachery of the troops in 1861.
The
Ojo
Caliente
Apaches
taken
to
San
Carlos.
--Unfortunate
though the attempt had been to get the Southern Apaches at
Cañada Alamosa to settle at Tularosa, the authorities were nothing
loath to make another removal of them from their chosen place of
abode at Ojo Caliente. The excuse was not hard to find. Rene-
gades from the Chiricahuas had sought refuge with the Southern
Apaches. With these Chiricahuas they had been associated in their
frequent raids. Therefore in May, 1875, the Ojo Caliente Indians
who had not fled at the suggestion of removal were taken to San
Carlos and their reserve was restored to the public domain.
The
Jicarillas
Apache
transfers.
—The fifth transfer attempted
was that of the Jicarillas to the Mescalero agency in southeastern
New Mexico. A reservation had been set apart for them in north-
western New Mexico but no attempt had been made to place them
on it. Then in 1878 came the order that "without delay" they
should be transferred to the Mescalero agency. Only thirty-two
actually made the move, for the rest refused to go to a place where
anarchy was rife. That there was more truth than fiction in the
charge against the Mescalero agency was apparent to those having
the removal in hand and they winked at the Jicarilla insubordina-
tion hoping that the following year might bring orders for some
different disposal of them. Southeastern New Mexico was become
the home of the desperado class of Mexicans and Americans and
organized bands of thieves made that their rendezvous, skillfully
laying on the Apache all blame for depredations committed and
property stolen. The Apache was evidently more sinned against
than sinning at this particular juncture for the promised protection
he found to be nothing of a protection and when he fled to the
mountains for safety he was pursued by the Military and punished
for his flight. No wonder the Jicarillas saw no gain in making
their home in such a place.
Three years later the Jicarillas were ordered to move to then
new reservation in northwest New Mexico and part of them did so
There they remained until 1883 when they were again ordered
to the Mescalero agency. This time the transfer was effected
though a part of the tribe strongly objected. Three years later
they were again moved back north to their own reservation where
they have since been permitted to remain.
Consolidation had brought its losses and its gains: it was one
step in the development of the southwest and in the meeting of the
Indian situation. Consolidation had come to stay. With the ex-
ception of the Mescaleros and the Jicarillas, all of the Apaches
were officially located at San Carlos and at Fort Apache--all on the
White Mountain reserve. There they were making progress in
civilized life, having laid aside most of their nomadic habits. Irri-
gation ditches, fences, houses, and fields of corn, wheat, melons
and pumpkins were the index of their advance industrially. Edu-
cationally but a start had been made in the path of formal educa-
tion. Many were the lessons the sometime savages had learned
in the arts of peace. Most of their number saw that the new order
had come to stay and that it was futile to struggle against it. With
the increase of cultivated fields, they saw the loss of all, were they
to take the war-path. Gradually they were coming to understand
that by maintaining order on the reserve their own lot was bettered
and very efficient was the aid given by the Apache police and
Apache scouts.
But one very strong Apache chief with his followers was abroad
in the mountains from which he made his hasty raids through
southern New Mexico and Arizona and northern Mexico. Im-
measurable damage had this Victoria already done and much more
was his desire. In 1882 two steps were taken which in a word
pronounced his doom.
For nearly forty years the international boundary had been one
of the Apaches' assets. Any pursuing party could follow only that
far. Once safe across that imaginary line, which the Apache found
was a very effective rampart, he was safe. Ninety-nine chances to
one there would be no troops within many miles of the place the hos-
tiles entered the country and before the troops would have a chance to
gather the quarry had fled to security in the mountains where the
troops dared not follow.
General
Crook's
Campaigns.
--By a treaty between the United
States and Mexico troops of both countries might pursue fleeing
savages across this international boundary in "unpopulated or
desert parts." This in itself was of incalculable importance and
strengthened the hands of both countries. But this was not the
only change effected in the year 1882. General Crook was again
given command in Arizona. In the early 70s he had been in charge
but at that time the Peace Commissioners were just beginning their
work and the commander's duty was to carry out the plans of
others rather than to himself undertake the settlement.
General Crook possessed a rare fitness for the task in hand.
Long years of experience with Indians of other tribes and a brief
experience with the Apaches themselves, tireless energy and daunt-
less courage were invaluable qualifications. But he possessed one
other trait much needed,-- a high sense of honor. Promises had
been made to the Apaches; he felt that they should be inviolable.
Never for a moment did he equivocate on the matter of Indian
obedience to the white man--unless the white man was wrong in
his demands. Then he took the Indians' side firmly and unchange-
ably. He was firmly convinced that the Apache must not only be
established on some plot of ground but that he must be put to work
raising something on it which would prove to him that the civilized
mode of life was worth while. The Verde reservation, at the time
of its abandonment, was expression in material form of this strong
conviction of General Crook. For the hostile, Crook was ready with
his own medicine: and General Crook's hostility was worthy of its
name.
The important reforms that General Crook inaugurated upon his
return to command were five. Every male Indian capable of bear-
ing arms was required to wear constantly a metal tag of identifica-
tion; the police force was re-organized and frequent roll-calls were
required; from six to seven hundred White Mountain Indians were
allowed to leave the hot valleys of the Gila and San Carlos rivers
for their old homes in the White Mountains; conferences were held
with disgruntled Indians and as far as possible their fears were
allayed concerning the purpose of the United States to disarm
them and remove them from Arizona; and preparations were made
for an active campaign against the hostiles for it was reported to
him that new attacks from the hostiles were already planned.
Early in March, 1883, two parties of hostiles left their strong-
hold in the Sierra Madre mountains of Mexico, one under Geronimo
raiding Sonora to gain stock, the other under Chato crossing into
the United States to gain ammunition. During the six days or
less that Chato's party was in Arizona, at least nine men were
killed along their trail which measured nearly four hundred miles.
They safely eluded pursuit but the raid was a costly one to them.
Not only did the Apaches acquire but little ammunition but also
one of their number deserted and made his way to San Carlos.
There he was arrested and later he became the guide who led the
troops to the Indian stronghold in the Sierra Madre mountains.
Having orders to proceed "regardless of departmental or na-
tional lines" General Crook himself proceeded to Mexico to consult
with the authorities there. In both Chihuahua and Sonora he
found hearty co-operation and plans were made for movements
against the hostiles.
Leading his command, General Crook crossed the roughest
country imaginable, entered the "impregnable stronghold" com-
pletely surprising the Indians. After a furious fight the camps
and their contents were captured: five half-grown girls and young
boys were also taken. Through them communication was had with
the rest of the tribe. The result was an unconditional surrender
of these hostiles with their chiefs Geronimo, Chato, Bonito, Loco,
Natchez and Kan-tin-no. These were taken to San Carlos and
at their own request runners were sent out urging what others were
scattered in the mountains to follow and surrender themselves.
The
final
outbreak
and
surrender.
--After this for a period of
more than two years Arizona and New Mexico had rest from war-
fare. That there would never be another Apache outbreak was
confidently expected by General Crook and others in authority.
But the memory of past wrongs was still fresh in their minds and
confidence in the faith and justice of the government was not yet
fully established. Then as added fuel to the smoldering flames came
some difficulty over the making of tiswin, the native Apache intoxi-
cant. For whatever reason or combination of reasons it may be, in
May, 1885, Geronimo, Mangus, Nana, Natchez and Chihuahua, with
less than fifty warriors and a double number of women and children,
fled from the reservation trying to reach the safety of the mountains
of Mexico ere the pursuing troops should overtake them. In this
they were successful, but being hard-pressed even in those mountain
fastnesses they again crossed into the United States. It began to
look as though the whole party would soon be captured or killed
for their stock was almost exhausted. But Fortune gave them one
more opportunity. By chance they came upon some of the best
stock in the country, and helping themselves liberally to this un-
expected gift, they made off again into Mexico.
Though exasperated beyond measure at this new turn in events,
the troops pushed south after the fugitives and succeeded in cap-
turing all of the stock and supplies of the hostiles though they did
not destroy the Indians themselves. A conference for the discus-
sion of terms of surrender was called for the following day. Before
break of day, the United States troops were inexcusably attacked
by a Mexican force and Captain Crawford was wantonly slain.
This again delayed the settlement for General Crook must needs
join his command first. The surrender was finally agreed upon,
but the Indians held themselves constantly vigilant both day and
night as if prepared for attack. When matters were finally agreed
upon, the command started for Fort Bowie from which place the
Indians were to be sent to Florida. En route Geronimo and Nat-
chez again became suspicious and with a party of thirty-six fled one
night.
The adverse criticism which had come to be General Crook's
portion was even more generously bestowed as the result of this
latest flight. He requested relief from his command and General
Miles was ordered to assume command of the department.
Owing to war with the Yaquis, the Mexican government had
been compelled to withdraw most of its forces from Sonora, leav-
ing that people defenseless. Geronimo and his warriors assumed
the offensive and made simultaneous attacks at three points in
Sonora. They then invaded the United States again only to retreat
south and west. Persistent pursuit and repeated losses led the
Indians to urgently request that they be allowed to surrender to
General Miles, the department commander. He joined his com-
mand and terms of surrender were agreed upon.
The prisoners were taken to Florida where Geronimo was put
to sawing logs. After some time they were removed to Mt. Vernon,
Alabama, Later they were again moved,--this time to Fort Sill,
Oklahoma, where they now live. Contrary to the terms of the sur-
render, Geronimo did not see his family for two years.
Thus ended the Apache struggle of three and a half centuries,
laid down his arms and acknowledged defeat it was only because
he lacked men and equipment to carry on the strife. Time alone
will tell whether or not the white man has been the only one who
has gained in the settlement, or whether in return for his wild
freedom and tribal entity there has come to the Apache a greater
gain in new and higher ideals and habits of life. His past is past
and the future is largely a sealed book.
The foregoing article is a resume of a study prepared as a Master's
Thesis at the University of California under the direction of Profes-
sor Herbert E. Bolton. The study was based on the following docu-
ments and works:
Annual Reports of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for the years
1854-1886.
Bartlett, J. R., Personal Narrative of Explorations and Incidents
in Texas, New Mexico, California, Sonora and Chihuahua. 2
vols. N. Y., 1861.
Bourke, J. G., On the Border with Crook. N. Y., 1891.
Calhoun, James S., Calhoun Correspondence. Collected by Annie
Heloise Abel. Washington, 1915.
Connelley, W. E., Doniphan's Expedition and the Conquest of
New Mexico and California. Kansas City, 1907.
Howard, Major-general 0. 0., My life and experiences among our
hostile Indians. Hartford, 1907.
McCall, G. A., McCall Letters. Philadelphia, 1868.
Summerhayes, Mrs. Martha, Vanished Arizona. 2nd ed. Salem,
Mass., 1911.
Bancroft, H. H., History of Arizona and New Mexico. Vol. XVII
of Works, San Francisco, 1889.
Bancroft, H. H., History of Utah. Vol. XXVI of Works, San
Francisco, 1889.
Bancroft, H. H. Native Races. Vol. I, Wild Tribes. Vol. I of
Works, San Francisco, 1882.
Bancroft, H. H., North Mexican States. Vol. I, Vol. XV of
Works, San Francisco, 1884.
Bishop, W. H., Mexico, California and Arizona. N Y., 1900.
Bolton, H. E., Athanase de Mezieres and the Louisiana-Texas
Frontier, 1768-1780. 2 Vols. Cleveland, 1914.
Bolton, H. E., Spanish Explorations in the Southwest, 1542-1706.
N. Y., 1916.
Bolton, H. E., Texas in the Middle Eighteenth Century. Berkeley,
1915.
Brown, M. A., Federal Indian Policy in New Mexico, 1846-1851.
Master's Thesis, University of California, 1916.
Chapman, C. E., The Founding of Spanish California. N. Y.,
1916.
Dunn, J. P., Massacres of the Mountains. N Y., 1886.
Dunn, W. E,, Spanish and French Rivalry in the Gulf Region of
the U. S., 1678-1702. Austin, Texas, 1917.
Ellis, G. E., The Red man and the White man in North America
from its discovery to the present time. Boston, 1882.
Grinnell, G. B., Beyond the Old Frontier: Adventures of Indian-
fighters, hunters and fur-traders. N. Y., 1913.
Hodge, F. W. (ed.), Handbook of American Indians north of
Mexico. 2 vols. Washington, 1907, 1910.
Inman, Col. H., and Col. W. F. Cody, The Great Salt Lake Trail.
N. Y., 1898.
Inman, Col. H., The Old Santa Fe Trail: The Story of a Great
Highway. N. Y., 1899.
Twitchell, R. E., The Leading Facts of New Mexican History.
Cedar Rapids, Iowa, 1911.
Thrall, Rev. H. S., A Pictorial History of Texas from the Earliest
Visits of European Adventures to A. D. 1879. 5th ed. St.
Louis, 1879.
How to cite:
Bertha Blount, "Apache in the Southwest, 1846-1886", Volume 23, Number 1, Southwestern Historical Quarterly Online, http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/publications/journals/shq/online/v023/n1/contrib_DIVL371.html
[Accessed Sun Nov 23 2:57:05 CST 2008]
